Digital Labor in the Middle East and Africa: Voices, Challenges, and Feminist Futures

Basma Balabel

On Tuesday November 25th 2025, the Access to Knowledge for Development Center (A2K4D) at the American University in Cairo’s Onsi Sawiris School of Business and its flagship initiative MENA Observatory on Responsible AI, in collaboration with the International Network on Digital Labor (INDL), and the Université d’Angers, hosted the second edition of the International Network on Digital Labor – Middle East and Africa Conference (INDL-MEA 2). The conference was organized in partnership with the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Digital Platform Labor (DiPLab) research program and took place online over two consecutive days.

The conference brought together researchers, practitioners, and activists to explore the evolving landscape of digital labor in the Middle East and Africa region. Over two days, discussions ranged from algorithmic governance to feminist perspectives on AI, revealing both opportunities and challenges for workers in the gig economy and AI supply chains.

The Importance of Digital Labor
Opening the conference, Dr. Antonio Casilli, Professor at Institut Polytechnique de Paris and Affiliate at the Minderoo Centre for Technology and Democracy, University of Cambridge, reminded participants that INDL was founded to center voices from the Global South in debates often dominated by Northern perspectives. “Our aim was to create an additional space to bring these voices, research, and discussions together,” he said, emphasizing the urgency of addressing platform work  in contexts marked by informality and limited social protections.

Dr. Nagla Rizk, Professor of Economics and Founding Director of the Access to Knowledge for Development Center (A2K4D), framed the conversation within the region’s realities: “The Middle East and Africa continue to experience rapid platform work in economies already marked by high levels of informality.” She highlighted A2K4D’s flagship initiative, the MENA Observatory on Responsible AI, as a hub for research on responsible AI, inclusion, and the future of work.

Troll Farms and Political Labor: The Invisible Workforce
One of the important sessions examined the rise of troll farming and its intersection with digital labor. Myriam Raymond, Associate Researcher at LEMNA (Digital and Organisational Transformation), and a researcher at Groupe de Recherche ANgevin en Économie et Managemen (GRANEM), argued that these practices, often dismissed as mere propaganda, are in fact forms of exploited work. She emphasized that troll farming is not only disinformation — it is labor, pointing to repetitive microtasks, algorithmic supervision, and invisibility akin to ghost work.

Complementing this, Marina Ayeb, Researcher at the University of Urbino, shared findings from Iranian troll farms, revealing a structured ecosystem where workers identify as “digital soldiers.” “They see their activity as patriotic duty, part of an information war,” Ayab explained. Yet, this labor is deeply precarious, blending ideological narratives with algorithmic control.

Gig Work: Flexibility or Precarity?
Across the region, gig platforms promise flexibility but often deliver insecurity. Dr. Hasan Ali, Professor at Selinus University, compared Bangladesh and MENA, noting that digital labor expands employment but reproduces precarity. For instance, migrant workers in Gulf states remain most vulnerable, facing visa dependency and algorithmic exploitation.

From Kenya, Geoffrey Ochieng, Independent Researcher, exposed the harsh realities of ride-hailing platforms: volatile earnings, opaque algorithms, and punitive deactivations. “Dynamic pricing often reduces fares during off-peak hours, making income extremely unpredictable,” he said, adding that drivers cope through informal networks and multi-app juggling.

Data Workers Speak Out
A keynote by Ephantus Kanyugi, Vice President at the Data Labelers Association of Kenya (DLA), gave voice to those powering AI systems. He emphasized that AI is like a child, and the data labeler is the person who teaches it, yet this essential work is marred by low pay, lack of contracts, and psychological strain. He explained that workers have explained multiple challenges that point to structural gaps in the digital labor ecosystem, calling for mental health support and fairer wages.

Feminist Futures and Responsible AI
Closing the conference, Dr. Nagla Rizk delivered a powerful keynote on Women, AI, and Work in MENA. She underscored the gendered nature of AI systems, citing examples from biased hiring algorithms to credit scoring injustices. Dr. Nagla explained that women are caught between a rock and a hard place, while gig work offers flexibility, it often traps women in precarious conditions compounded by safety risks and algorithmic penalties.

Prof. Rizk advocated for feminist AI, defined as “the act of deconstructing oppressive systems and building inclusive AI structures based on justice and transparency.” Through the MENA Observatory, the team pushes for multistakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, and global dialogue to ensure that technology serves people, not the other way around.

The Road Ahead
Dr. Sharath Srinivasan,  Professor at the University of Cambridge, reminded participants that AI is not a monolithic “thing” but a contested terrain shaped by extraction, labor, and imagination. The challenge and opportunity for the Middle East and Africa lies in refusing deterministic narratives and crafting inclusive, equitable futures for digital work.

Overall, digital labor in MENA and Africa is a story of contradictions; between empowerment and exploitation, and innovation and inequality. The voices from INDL-MEA 2 make one thing clear: shaping the future of work requires centering local realities, amplifying worker agency, and embedding justice at the heart of technological change.